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Parental alienation (or Hostile Aggressive Parenting) is a theory first popularized by Dr. Richard A. Gardner as parental alienation syndrome. Under the theory, parental alienation occurs when a group of parental behaviors are damaging to children's mental and emotional well-being, and can interfere with a relationship of a child and either parent. These behaviors most often accompany high conflict marriages, separation or divorce. These behaviors, whether verbal or non-verbal, cause a child to be mentally manipulated or bullied into believing a loving parent is the cause of all their problems, and/or the enemy, to be feared, hated, disrespected and/or avoided.〔(【引用サイトリンク】url=http://www.paawareness.org/ )〕 Characteristics, such as lack of empathy and warmth, between the rejected parent and child are some indicators.〔Warshak, R. A. (2010). (''Divorce Poison: How to Protect Your Family from Bad-mouthing and Brainwashing'' ). New York: Harper Collins.〕 The term does not apply in cases of actual child abuse, when the child rejects the abusing parent to protect themselves.〔Warshak, R. A. (2002). (Misdiagnosis of Parental Alienation Syndrome. ) ''American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 20'', 31-52.〕 Parental alienation is controversial in legal and mental health professions, both generally and in specific situations.〔Warshak, R. A. (2001). Current Controversies Regarding Parental Alienation Syndrome. ''American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 19'', 29-59.〕 Terms related to parental alienation include child alienation, pathological alignments, visitation refusal, brainwashing, pathological alienation,〔Warshak, R. A. (2003). Bringing Sense to Parental Alienation: A Look at the Disputes and the Evidence. ''Family Law Quarterly, 37'', 273-301.〕 the toxic parent and parental alienation syndrome,〔 ==Overview== First described in 1976 as "pathological alignment", the dynamic refers to a situation in which a child unreasonably rejects a non-custodial parent.〔 Richard A. Gardner proposed parental alienation syndrome in the 1980s based on his clinical experience with the children of divorcing parents. Since that time, other researchers have suggested focusing less on diagnosing a syndrome and more on what has been described as the "alienated child", and the dynamics of the situation that have contributed to the alienation. In this view, alienation is seen as a breakdown of attachment between parent and child and may be caused by multiple factors. The behaviors of all family members, including those of the alienated parent, may lead to family dysfunction and the rejection of a parent. The evaluation of all contributing factors and all possible remedies are recommended in evaluating cases where children have become estranged from a parent.〔 Parental alienation lacks a single definition and its existence, etiology, characteristics, and in particular the concept of parental alienation syndrome have been the subject of debate. Some formulations of the concept have emphasized the role of an alienating parent, termed variously the "programming" parent or "embittered-chaotic parent".〔 More recent descriptions, influenced by the research of Kelly and Johnston, have proposed a more complex analysis, in which all family members may play a role. This "systems-based" view acknowledges that a child may be alienated from one parent without "alienating" behaviour by the other parent.〔〔 The results of an empirical study also suggest that alienating behaviors by both parents are the norm in high-conflict divorces. Rejected parents, generally fathers, tend to lack warmth and empathy with the child; instead, they engage in rigid parenting and critical attitudes. The rejected parent is often passive, depressed, anxious, and withdrawn - characteristics which may encourage further rejection. The parent that the child aligns with (the aligned parent) may engage in alienating behaviors, including undermining the other parent. These behaviors may be conscious and deliberate or, alternatively, may reflect a lack of awareness on the effect of the actions on the children. Direct alienating behaviors occur when one parent actively undermines the other parent, such as making derogatory remarks about the other parent, telling the child that the other parent is responsible for the separation, or telling the child that the other parent is the cause of financial difficulties. Indirect alienation behaviors occur when one parent fails to support access or contact with the other parent or tacitly accepts the child's negative behaviour and comments towards the other parent.〔〔 Most of the peer-reviewed publications on the subject have been in the form of descriptions and definitions. Some empirical research has been done, though the quality of the studies vary widely and research in the area is still underdeveloped.〔Hands, A. J. & Warshak, R. A. (2011). Parental Alienation Among College Students. ''The American Journal of Family Therapy, 39'', 431-443.〕 One significant longitudinal study of 1000 cases has been completed by Dr. Clawar and Ms. Rivkin. Sample selection bias is an obvious problem in many of the studies. For example, when alienated children have been interviewed, it is likely that the children selected for study have been among the most severely alienated and suffering children. The beliefs of judges, lawyers, and mental health professionals have been cited extensively in peer reviewed literature.Nonsensical 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Parental alienation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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